Case Study 1-3 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

1-3 - Case Study Example Due to the increase in the market pressure, the company focussed on its information technology (IT) department to provide information regarding the changing trend of the customers and increase the cross selling of the offerings. The key problem associated with the company is related to the use of different IT applications. The lack of importance towards customer relationship management (CRM) and IT system was the major factor which was critically affecting the company. Canyon Ranch had a conventional approach towards the use of information systems to ensure business effectiveness. Computerized Lodging Systems (CLS) was implemented in the company to keep a track of the customers. In order to monitor the customer preferences, Guestware software application was implemented. Correspondingly, the issue faced was that no proper integration was being established between the CLS and the Guestware. Moreover, the person who acts as a coordinator in the company was not being able to provide rel evant information on time and also did not have information related to the business ahead of time. Also, the firm did not have any Point of Sale (POS) in any of the restaurants and salons for the purchase of the goods. The key motive of the Canyon Ranch has been to increase the footfall and the level of customer satisfaction through efficient service deliverance. Therefore, the company needs to incorporate a management strategy to increase the customer relations effectively. The company through the development of IT would be able to enhance the service deliverance and tracking (Applegate & Piccoli, 2004). The company Canyon Ranch is renowned in the industry as gold standard and thus commanded a service rate of 25% to 30% greater than the other destination spas. The unique value proposition of providing health and healing in Canyon Ranch which was supporting its increased market presence, was being followed by other spas. The day spa was taking into consideration the features

Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 115

Summary - Essay Example At last, Africa came to light with the emergence of nationalist such as Kwame Nkhurumah of Ghana and Nelson Mandela of South Africa. South Africa was able to elect its first black president in 1994 after a long spell of foreign leadership (Murithi, 132). The intensity of Apartheid reduced as a result of the new era of leadership. The late 21 century was a symbol of a peaceful era as the world began transforming from world war era to an era of peace among independent nations. The transformation was signified by the end of a cold war between the USSR and the United States signed by US president George Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev of USSR. The rebirth of the new era saw Africa through its struggle for independence and ushered a period of development. Africa has since gone a mile ahead with the improvement of the education system, technology and communication. Africa is currently able to host major events such as the Olympics and the world cup. Africa had undergone a lot of hostility in the past thus it was anticipated by many people that it would be hard for Africa to transform but it has responded well to the changes and currently considers all the past events as historical part of the new

Advantages and Disadvantages of Infrared Touch Screen

Advantages and Disadvantages of Infrared Touch Screen Touch-screen is an electronic visual display that can find the existence and location of a touch inside the display area. The term just like direct to touching the display of the device with a hand or finger. Touch-screens can also fell other passive objects, such as a stylus. But, if the object find is animate, as a light pen, the term touch-screen is usually not applicable. The touch-screen has two main characteristically. First, touch-screen applies one to interaction straightly with what is showed, instead of indirectly with a cursor controlled by a mouse or touchpad. Second, touch-screen lets one do so without demand any intermediate device that would require to be maintain in the hand. This display can be close to computers or to networks as a terminal. They also perform as an outstanding role in the design of digital tackles such as the PDA (personal digital assistant), satellite navigation devices, mobile phone, video games and etc. (Dictionary of Architectural and Building Technology 4 Edition, 2004) History In 1971, the first touch sensor was exploited by Doctor Sam Hurst (founder of Elographics) at the time he was an instructor at the University of Kentucky. He had given this sensor a name, Elograph, been patented by The University of Kentucky Research Foundation. Dr. Sam Hurst (left) the founder of Touch-screen. (Elotouch, 2009) The Elograph was not transparent like modern touch screens; but it was a distinguished landmark in touch screen technology. In 1974, the first really touch screen bring in a transparent surface was exploited by Sam Hurst and Elographics. In 1977, Elographics exploited and patented five-wire resistance technology, the most popular touch-screen technology use today. Touch-screens firstly obtained some visibility with the creation of the computer-assisted learning terminal, which are come out in 1975 as a part of the PLATO project. Soon afterwards, touch-screens have become intimate in daily life. Most of the companies use touch-screens for kiosk system in retail and travel settings, POS system, ATMs system, PDAs, with a stylus is sometimes used to control the user interface or to enter data. The prestige of smart phones, PDAs, portable game console and varies types of information appliances is manipulation the requirements for, and accepting of touch-screens. The first touch-screen on the world, Elograph. (Elotouch, 2009) From 1979-1985, the Fairlight CMI (and Fairlight CMI IIx) was a high-end musical sample and resynthesis workstation that exploit light pen technology, with the user would distribute and control sample and synthesis data, as well as feeder different menu within its OS by touching the screen with the light pen. The latest Fairlight series III models, the place of light pen had used a graphics tablet. The HP-150 from 1983 was the one worlds earliest commerce touch-screen computer. The touch-screen monitor didnt have a touch-screen in the strict sense; while it had a 9 inch Sony Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) encircled by infrared transmitters and receivers, which are controlled by the position of any non-transparent objects on the screen. Until nowadays, most consumer touch-screens can only sense one point of contact at one time, and some had the ability to sense how hard one is touching. This is the time to make changes with the commercialization of multi-touch technology. Touch-screens computer are popular used in hospitality, and in heavy industry, as well as kiosks such as museum displays or room automation, where normal computer input device such as keyboard and mouse do not allow a suitable intuition, fast response, or accurate interactive by the user with the displays content. Historically, the touch-screen transducer and its accompanying controller-based firmware have been made available by a wide array of after-market system integrators, and not by display, chip, or motherboard manufacturers. Display and chip manufacturers worldwide have recognition the tendency in regard to accepting of touch-screens as a highly advisable user interface module and have began to integrate touch-screen feature into the main design of their products. (Elotouch, 2009) Touch-screen Technologies I have read many journals and search from the internet about this topic, and I found that there have variety types of touch screen technology using in different area start from 1971. Below is the type of touch-screen technology. Resistive Resistive touch-screen panel is build up of some layers, the most important layers of the resistive touch-screen panel which are two thin, that is metallic and electrically conductive layers dissociate by a narrow disparity. When an object, like a finger or a light pen, check down on a point on the resistive touch-screen panels outward surface, the two metallic layers will become as a connected at that point: the panel will conducts as a pair of voltage dividers with connected outputs. This is because a change in the electrical current, which is enroll as a touch incident and sent to the controller for processing. Surface acoustic wave Surface acoustic wave (SAW) technology is using ultrasonic waves to pass through the touch-screen panel. When an object like finger or light pen touched the panel, a part of the wave is absorption. This transform in the ultrasonic waves registers the situation of the touch incident and forwards the information to the controller for processing. Surface acoustic wave touch screen panels can be damaged by foreign elements. Pollutants on the surface will be also interfering with the function of the touch-screen. (Touch System 2009) Capacitive A capacitive touch-screen panel constitute of an insulator such as glass, spread with a transparent conductor like ITO (indium tin oxide). As we know, human body also is a conductor, with using human body touch the surface of the screen contents in a distortion of the bodys static electricity part, measure as a transform in electric capacity. Different technologies may be used to define the position of the touch. The position is use to send information to the controller for processing. (I-techcompany, 2009) Surface capacitance Surface capacitance in the basic technology, only have one side of the insulator is spread with a conduct electricity layer. A small voltage is utilized to the layer, effecting in an identical static electricity part. When a conductor, like a humans finger, touches at the uncoated surface, capacitor is the formation of dynamic. The touch-screen sensors controller can define the position of the touch indirectly from the transform in the capacitance as measured from the each nook of the panel. As the surface capacitance has no moving fields, it is moderate degree durable but has finite resolution, is tend to fake semaphore from parasitism capacitive coupling, and requires adjustment during fabricate. Therefore, it is most frequently used in basic applications such as kiosks and industrial controls. (I-techcompany, 2009) Projected capacitance Projected Capacitive Touch (PCT) technology is a capacitance technology which excises more preciseness and quick operational, by etching the conduct electricity layer. An X-Y gridiron is formation whether etching a single layer to form a gridiron method of electrodes, or by etching two part, vertical layers of conduct electricity material with parallel lines or tracks to form the grid (compare to the pixels gridiron found in variety of LCD displays). The greatest resolution of PCT giving permission to manipulate without direct connection, so the conduct electricity layers can be spread with further conservative insulator layers, and running indeed under screen protectors, peradventure back weather and vandal-proof mirror. Proper to the peak layer of a PCT entity mirror, PCT is a better right measure answer to resistive touch technology. Fell back on the execution, an active or passive stylus can used to cover for or in enhance to a human body, finger. This is familiar with POS equipment that demands to the signal that snatches up. Gloved fingers can or cant be perceived, fell back on the execution and obtain settings. Smudginess on the conductor it can impede with the performances. The example of the smudginess on the conductor mostly come from rheumy or sweatiness fingers cusp, especially in high wateriness circumstance. Collected dust, which adhesively on the surface relevant to the hydrosphere from finger cusp also will be a p roblem. The two types of PCT: Self Capacitance and Mutual Capacitance. (Planarembeddred, 2010) Mutual Capacitance The capacitor at every junction of each column and each row, it is Mutual Capacitive sensors. In a 12-by-20 array, for example, it would have 240 self-governed capacitors. Voltage is appliance to each row or each columns conductor. Bringing a human body like finger or conductive stylus contiguous to the exterior of the sensor transforms the local static domain which recede the mutual capacitance. The capacitance transforms at each of the singlehanded conductor on the lattice can be estimate to exactly mensuration the sense the position by determine the voltage in the each datum line. Mutual capacitance empowers multi-touch control where multi-ply fingers, thenar or stylus can be exactly follow up the scent at the same time. (Planarembeddred, 2010) Self Capacitance Self capacitance sensors actually same like mutual capacitance sensors, both of them have same horizontal and vertical grid but the rows and column each is operate autocephaly. Self capacitance can able to load a human body like finger and light pen on each row or each column electric pole by a electrical current meter. The advantages for this method is it able to engender a strongest signal compare with mutual capacitance, but the disadvantages is it cant accurately resolve more than one finger, as a result in ghosting, or mislay position catching. (Planarembeddred, 2010) Infrared The infrared touch-screen uses an array of X-Y infrared light-emitting-diode (LED) and photo detector to match circumambience border of the interface to find out an interrupt in method of the LED horizontal beam. The main advantage for this system is it able to detect basically of any input, comprising a human body, finger, glove finger, stylus or a pen. Infrared touch-screen is ordinary widely used in outdoor application; ATM and point-of-sale (POS) system which are unable depend on a bare finger to activating the touch-screen. Infrared touch-screen is different with the capacitive touch-screens, it doesnt need any fix design on the glass to increasing the durability and optics perspicuity of the entirely system. (I-techcompany, 2009) Strain gauge The configuration of the strain gauge, also known as the strength of panel technology, the screen is spring-mounted at the four corners and strain gauges are installed to determine the deflection during the screen is touched. This technology has been existed from 60 years since the 20th century, but Vissumo and F-Origin have to make new feature in the business possible solution. Strain gauge also able to measures the Z-axis and the strength of a persons touched. This screen is usually used to expose the public system, for example ticket machines due to its obstruction to damage. (Wisegeek, 2010) Optical imaging Optical imaging is a more modern evolution touch-screen technology, it able to capture two or more image sensors which are placed around the border of the screen. An infrared back lights was install in the camera scene which are used to capture the images on the other side of the screen. Each of the touch will display as a shadow and the task for the camera is use to triangle and locates the touch or even step to the size of the touching object. Optical imaging is a technology which growing in prestige, because to its scalability, multifunction, and affordability, mostly for a buff units. (Wisegeek, 2010) Dispersive signal technology Dispersive signal technology was release in 2002 and introduced by 3M, this touch-screen is using the sensors to determine the mechanical energy on the screen that occurrence because to a touch. This technology is using intricacy algorithms to explanation the information offering the actual position of the touch. The most powerful feature for this technology is its wont compensation to be unaffected by dist or dust and any other external elements, such as scratches. This technology doesnt have any additional element adding on the screen but it also enable to provide a distinction optical clarity. Apart from that, the mechanical vibration is using to determine a touch happening, any device also able use to engender such happening, such as human body, finger and also stylus. The disadvantages for this technology are the system is unable to determine a stirless finger after the initial touch. (Wisegeek, 2010) Acoustic pulse recognition Acoustic pulse recognition was release in 2006 and introduced by Tyco Internationals Elo division, this technology was using piezoelectric sensors situated at several locations which are around the screens and use to convert the mechanical energy of a touch, also call as vibration into an electronic signal. This technology screen hardware is same like dispersive signal technology which are using algorithm to detect the actual position of the touch depend on the sensors signal. The generally material to made the touch-screen is glass, it will giving the touch-screen a good durability and optical clarity. Whatever the screen is full with scratches or dust, this technology also able to perform with a good accuracy. Besides that, this touch-screen technology is also good fit to demonstrates that are physical larger. A system which are installing with a dispersive signal technology, the system is unable to determine a stirless finger after the initial touch. But with the same reason above , identification is not interrupt by any remaining objects. (Wisegeek, 2010) Construction There are a lot of majors methods to develop a touch-screen. The mains purpose for the touch-screen is to detect one or more finger or stylus which are touching on a display screen and use to constructing the pragmatic sanction that are representative, also use to convey the pragmatic sanction to the suitable system. For the most popular touch-screen technology, which is capacitive and resistive approach, both of them are usually built by four layers; 1st layer The upper polyester layer spread with a transparent coherer conductive which is spread on the bottom of the layer. 2nd layer This layer is as a spacer which is built by adhesive. 3rd layer The main material for this layer is glass; we also call this layer as glass layer. Transparent coherer conductive is also spread on the top of the layer. 4th layer Another name for this layer is adhesive layer, it used on reverse side of the glass layer for the installation. When the touch-screen system detects a touch, the system will record all the changes that occur on electrical current which are work through the display or screen. One of the touch-screen technologies which are develop by 3M in 2002, dispersive-signal technology, this technology is focus on piezoelectric effect. This technology will generate the voltage during the mechanism force is exploit to a materials, a chemically situation will happen during a reinforce screen substrate is touches. There are two type of the infrared-based approaches touch-screen technology. One of them, it is using an array of sensor to determine the actual position where a human body, finger is touching or almost touching to the display or the screen, accordingly use to blocking the light beams projected cross over the display. Another infrared-based touch-screen technology is operate with a infrared cameras which is install on the bottom layer of the screen and use to record each of the touch which are happen on the display or screen. In each of the situation, the touch-screen system will detect each of the meaningful pragmatic sanctions depends on the operation which is display on the screen during the time and the actual position of the touch. (Ipod Touch Fans, 2010) Development Practically each of the distinguished touch-screen technology patents were submitted in the 1970s and 1980s and already expired. Touch-screen package manufacturing and goods programming is no more guarantee by royalties or legitimacy with concerning to patent and nowadays the manufacturing extensive applying touch-screen technology display on several types of devices. The evolvement of multitasking of touch-screen convenience is used to tracking touching by one or more than one human body, finger or stylus on the screen, therefore the touch-screen operations that need more than one finger are probability. Besides that, this touch-screen devices support more than one user to interaction with the touch-screen at the same times. Nowadays, there are a lot of products is apply with the high-tech and integrate touch-screen technology in the world. With the fast growing and acceptance by public, the inconsequential cost for the touch-screen technology is consuetude draw into the device that is included touch-screen technology and is potentially eliminated. As generally happen with any technology before, touch-screen technology include software and hardware have sufficiently ripped and was perfectly survive in the world over more than thirty years based on the point which is its reliability is certify. There is why, nowadays so many system or product are applied with touch-screen technology, such as Global Positioning System (GPS), airplanes, mobile phone, gaming console, ticketing system, machine control system, utensil, and each type of handheld devices. With the influence of the touch-screen technology, Apple Inc. has developed a mobile phone which is fulfilling with multi-touch technology and gives it a name as iPhone. By the releases of the iPhone, it had motivated the touch-screen mobile phone market and with the estimate it had bring in around US$5 billion in 2009. The capability of the touch-screen technology to preciseness location of the point on the screen itself is also advancement with the rising of graphics tablet or screen hybrids. (Wikipedia, 2010) Ergonomics and usage From the journal Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007, which are publisher by Routldge, I founded there are many ergonomics and usage about touch-screen. As following: Finger Stress Touch-screen technology has an ergonomic trouble and become a stress on human fingers for them which are during a user employed more than a few minute at a time, from important overwhelming force can be needs for some types of touch-screen. As we know, nowadays touch-screen technology already as a craze technology and continues to growing, therefore the community is going through a lot more finger pressure. There have a lot of ways to emission this problem, such as some of the users will use a pen or some other devices to add exploit and more preciseness on the pointing. The exploitation of this kind device cans sometimes giving trouble, which are according to the required use. For example, public kiosks like ATM machine. Fine motor control is better realizing working with a stylus. That is because a human finger is a quite wide and careless pointing of connecting with the touch-screen itself. (Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007) Fingernail as Stylus From a science novelette short story Scanners Live in Van which is written by Cordwainer Smith (Pen Linebarger) in 1950, it is mentioning about using fingernail as stylus for easier typing. The idea of using fingernail as a stylus pruned to from a point on the screen, to be particularly used as a stylus on writing screen for communication. These ergonomics problem of immediacy touching can be bypass by using a distinct skill, provided that the user fingernail are either short or long. Instead of touching by using soft skin of an extended fingernail, whatever the finger is curly but the top of the fingernail are able be used instead. From the underneath, the thumb finger is optional used as a supporter for the user finger or for the user who have long fingernails. This method is work on most touch-screen technology, but it didnt work on capacitive touch-screens. As we know, fingernails are hard, bending appearance contact the screen at a very small point. So, the finger just needs a much less for touching, even bigger accurateness is probable (propinquity that of a stylus, with a little bit of experience), not to mention skins oil will spread on the screen, the fingernail able to dumbly move over the touch-screen with only a very small hindrance, empower to writing text, selecting, drawing or moving windows. Fingernail is hardness and smoothness same like the top of a stylus that is because human fingernails contain of keratin and it wills not usually scratches or damage the touch-screen. In turn, it is available for a very short stylus top, which is able cunning correctly into end of the finger; this method will increasing the visibility of the appearance point on the touch-screen. (Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007) Fingerprints Touch-screen able sustain from the issue of fingerprints on the appearance. This issue can be extenuate or prevent by using of staff with optical thins skin layout to mitigated the evident influence of fingers oils. For example, the oleophobic used to spreading in the iPhone 3GS, or by mitigated skin contact during using a finger nail or stylus. (Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007) This is USB finger print which is using touch-screen technology. (Gabget Venue, 2009) Combined with Haptics Most users empirical with touch-screen which are dont have tactile feedback or tactual sensation can be a trouble depends on latencies or other method. Base on the research from University in Glasgow Scotland which are handle by Brewster, Chohan and Brown on 2007, the illustrate the specimen users deduct input error by 20%, increase data input speed by 20%, and minimize user acknowledge load by 40% during touch-screen are integrate with tactual sensation or tactual feedback. (Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007) Gorilla Arm Base on the hacker slang dictionary, Jargon File, its define Gorilla Arm as the miscarriage to realize the ergonomics of perpendicular installed touch-screen for long time used. The advocate is that human body, arm held in a not supported standard location speedy turn into knackered and suffering, this call Gorilla Arm. It is usually citation as a surface evidence sample of what is not able to done in ergonomic. Perpendicular touch-screen still dictates in most system such as ATMs and data kiosks about the usage is also informality as an n ergonomics issue. Indisposed may be conformation by previously lousy position and shrivel of muscular system conformation by finite physics practice. Meticulous Art Printer is also a usually control the neck and shoulder painful depend on their position and the repeatability of their propulsion when they are painting. (Prometheus Critical Studies in Innovation, 2007) Touch Screen Mobile Phones Several years ago, everyone and their brother was talking about or playing with the Blackberry. It did not matter which make or model but people were simply intrigued by the features that Blackberry offered with its scrolling wheel, full qwerty keyboard, wide variety of applications available from the Handango store on the phone. However through the natural process of evolution, the world has become blessed with a new kind of phone, a phone which truly changes the world of mobile phones, we are blessed with the touch screen mobile phone. Originally the iPhone was the one and only phone out on the market which allowed users to use the power of their finger to control every aspect of the phone, rather than being imprisoned by a track wheel, or the newer more improved track ball. After the iPhone was originally released newer versions of the iPhone have come out in the 3G as well as the soon to come in the 3G S. These days however Apple is not the only company manufacturing these touch screen mobile phones, blackberry as well as several other notable phone companies have followed suit. If you asked a group of ten people which touch screen phone is the best, it is expected for the person to say the iPhone , unless of course they hold some sort of grudge against the phone due to the fact that is is currently only available on ATT. Regardless of your choice for the best touch screen phone on the market, you must always weight the pros and cons of each before you make a decision to buy or not to buy. Pros Simple to use, if you want to use it, touch it, and do the same if you are interested in closing it. Visually pleasing to look at. You never have to see the full keyboard that you are typing on, rather you are able to type onto the phone when you want to, in both upright and landscape modes. These days everyone and their brother is holding onto an iPhone the same way they used to hold onto Blackberries. The verdict? People arent using them for no reason, they are fun to use, and draw a certain amount of attention to the user. Cons The glass screen has the possibility of breaking even upon the slightest impact from a high distance. Odds are that if you are a person who is constantly dropping his or her phone, you should stay away from these touch screen phones, most of which do not offer insurance. The built in digital keyboard can be hard to get adjusted to especially if you are not used to typing on any sort of QWERTY keyboard. This is a quick fix for most, but it is something to think about if you are not comfortable with hitting imaginary buttons. Finally, these phones tend to be a bit more expensive than the other phones in their bracket, but the old adage stands true, you get what you pay for, and its recommended that you try one of the touch screen mobile phones out. At the end of the day, everyone has their own idea of a best phone, or the best phone carrier. However the one thing that everyone can agree on is the fact that these touch screen mobile phones are truly revolutionary and within the next five years we will not have any such phone that is not a touch screen. If you have been hesitant to make the jump so far, it is recommended that you head to your local phone retailer, and at least play around with these touch screen devices. Odds are, you will be pretty surprised with the results. http://hubpages.com/hub/Touch-Screen-Mobile-Phones Advantages and Disadvantages of touch Screen From the journal and the internet resource that I read, I founded some advantage and disadvantage of using touch-screen. The disadvantage for touch-screen device is it required a really big screen to avoid mistake when touching with human finger. Besides that, larger screen will bring low battery life effect. Normally touch-screen devices dont have any extra keys, such as iPhone. Therefore, when the application collapse but without collapse the OS, so user cant reach main menu when the screen is no response. Apart from that, touch-screen normally has lousy preciseness, QWERTY keyboards had known as an extra device. Most of the user-interface for touch-screen device is no optimization for thumb control, so user require and other device like stylus to control the application. User usually using their finger o touching the screen to control the touch-screen application, so this will make the screen get dirty and need to clean it up in certain time to prevent loss control. Lastly, touch-screen device require complex application to support, so it will slow down the response time and gain low battery life. The advantage for touch-screen is it has a large screen which giving a good view for web browsing, picture or movies. Apart from that, typically touch-screen application has a simple user-interface which is more intuitive. This will gain user easy understanding when using the touch-screen device. iPhone mobile which are develop by Mac Ins. Is a good example to represent simple user-interface. Lastly, each of the touch-screen devices has some button is able to smash down after using a few months or years. (John Popes, 2010) Conclusion Touch-screens have been around since the 60s. But it had just recently started to gain popularity and consumer markets. Nowadays, its pretty normal for most electronic devices, for example computer systems or entertainment systems to include a monitor. Users can interact it by using a mouse or keyboard to send input but with the implementation of this technology into these applications, it allows users to manipulate the systems through touching the monitor itself. Though the touch-screen technology contains some limitations, such as low precision when users use finger or the user must be within arms reach of the display, its user friendly, accurate, and easy to operate. With the implementation of touch-screens technology in different applications such as in the medical or military system, it will enhance the human machine interface experience. As the accuracy and intuitiveness of the screen increases, they will become even more common than they already are for the ease of use they provided. Proper development of this technology will surely bring a lot more benefits to users in near future. The touch-screen technology is keys to achieving and realizing e-navigation.

Hazards from the Universe :: Ecology Ecological Papers

Hazards from the Universe There are several perilous conditions that exist in our vast universe that could directly impact life as we know it on Earth. These hazards include meteors, asteroids, emission of charged solar particles, supernovas, and problems caused by man. Although the odds of these dangers directly harming Earth’s population are extremely low, if not impossible altogether, something about pending apocalypse seems to excite the human mind. The possibility of a meteorite or asteroid of significant size colliding into Earth poses as a legitimate threat to our planet. Most meteorites are miniscule and cause little harm. In fact, as many as four billion meteorites enter Earth’s atmosphere every day. However, only the larger meteors reach the earth because smaller ones burn up in the atmosphere. A large meteor impact, while rare, should still cause some concern. Barringer Crater in Arizona was formed from an iron meteor approximately 30-50 meters in diameter. Other such large meteors ar e often held accountable for the seemingly sudden extinction of dinosaurs. Based upon scientific calculations, three craters of at least 10 km are expected to form on the earth every million years. While these larger meteors are rare, any oncoming asteroid could be pushed off course by the use of rockets or explosives (Bray, 1999). Meteorites are dangerous, but the asteroids which they come from are even worse. Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. However, the scientists at the Lincoln Near Earth Asteroid Research Project recently detected an asteroid 2km wide which was originally predicted to collide with the Earth on February 1, 2019, with possible catastrophic implications. Fortunately, it is believed that this particular asteroid threat will disappear. Still, the public is aware of how threatening an asteroid could be. Hollywood has added to the apocalyptic hysteria surrounding asteroids by releasing movies like Armageddon and Deep Impact. While there is no reason to panic right now, asteroids should be feared because an impact would cause extreme and possibly fatal destruction. Violent eruptions of gas on the Sun’s surface called solar flares can send solar charged particles towards Earth and appear to be possible threats to the safety of mankind. These expulsions of charged particles come from the sun flares’ relationship with sun spots. Sun spots are cooler and darker regions of the Sun where the solar magnetic field extends off of the Sun’s surface. When the charged particles ejected from the sun reach Earth and enter its upper atmosphere, they react with present atoms and can cause major disturbances to satellites and terrestrial communications systems such as T.

Pro-Slavery Arguments Essay

Slavery was at its peak both economically and controversially during the 19th century. The proslavery forces of the south proposed many arguments to defend their institution that they held dear. Legal, religion, and economic arguments were all used to justify their support of slavery. The largest defense of slavery came from the political aspects of it. Legal arguments and defenses were used more frequently than any means of support. The largest attempts to save slavery came through compromises. Many famous compromises aroused during the 19th century over slavery and the territories. The compromise that stands out more than any other was the Missouri Compromise of 1820 which stated that any new territory above 36 °30†³ would be free, and any territory south of that line would be slave. This settled the argument of slavery for a little while and was a great way of temporarily preserving their institution. Another argument used in support of slavery was that slaves were property, and individuals had the constitutional right to their property. With this defense, it gave them a constitutional advantage. Another famous decision in favor of the South was the Dred Scott decision. This Supreme Court decision allowed proslavery forces to use the argument that blacks were not people; therefore they had no constitutional rights including freedom. This was another constitutional advantage that came from a Supreme Court interpretation of the constitution. The south presented a formidable argument to preserve slavery with these legal arguments; however there were also the economic and religious aspects to take into consideration as well. There were many economical aspects to the question over slavery. The south presented the necessity of slave labor for prosperity as one example. Without the use of slavery, plantations and cash crops wouldn’t have succeeded nearly as well because there was simply not enough man power to equal the labor that the slaves put in. This would have affected the whole nation but more predominantly the south because cash crops were their most significant economic activity by far. Another argument was that slavery would never expand north because they had no use for land north of the 36 °30†³ line because it simply wasn’t fit for producing cash crops or housing plantations. Only the southern lands were fertile and climatic enough to  meet their needs. One more significant economic argument used to back up slavery was slaves were treated better working on plantations than free blacks were in the north. Plantation owners wanted to keep excellent care for their slaves because without high moral and work force, they would be useless. Therefore, plantations offered 3 meals a day, housing, and many other perks for slaves in which most free blacks couldn’t gain on their small incomes. This was a chief point often made by the south. Religion also played a key role for southerners and their fight to defend slavery. Slavery was often defended by Christianity and religion in the South. Southerners often used the Bible itself to justify slavery, citing how slavery has always existed from biblical times to what was their present day. They argued that it was a fact of life and was meant to be. Proslavery forces even went to the extreme in saying that Jesus himself found nothing wrong with slavery and he too accepted and embraced it. Never once was there a citing in the Bible of Jesus’ frustration with slavery they argued. Last of all, they stated that they were spreading Christianity by introducing Africans to Christianity and converting them; therefore spreading the word of God and Christianity more and more. They were Africans more civilized by converting them and introducing them to their religious ways. These were the religious arguments on behalf of the South for the most part. All in all, the South presented a very strong case in support of their ideals. By incorporating all of these religious, economic, and legal aspects into their defense, they offered a persuasive defense of their sacred institution.

Communication misunderstandings Essay

Communication misunderstandings happen all the time in business communications, and the consequences can range from annoying to terrible. Here are some simple rules to follow that can save you a world of trouble when communicating with colleagues and partners. Active listening Active listening is one of the best ways to effectively communicate with others. In fact, when we actually listen, misunderstanding is less likely to occur. Active listening is all about building rapport, understanding, and trust. Face the speaker, maintain eye contact, keep an open mind, engage yourself. Ask question Avoid making assumptions based on prejudiced opinions. Ask questions to confirm, whether you are the one sending or receiving the message. Never assume that you know what has been conveyed. If someone conveys a message that is unclear, ask for more clarification Be Aware of Your Verbal and Non-Verbal Language Be certain to clearly convey the same verbal and non-verbal cues. Do not give mixed communication signals. Remember, body language, facial expressions, and tone of speech play a significant part in how messages will be interpreted. For example, if you say something one way, and your facial expression says something else, it is very possible that a miscommunication may occur. Build, rapport the relationship Build rapport when you develop mutual trust, friendship, and empathy with someone. Building rapport can be incredibly beneficial to your career – it opens doors and helps establish good relationships with clients, colleagues, and team members. Manage the conflict situation Learn to resolve problems and conflicts as they arise. Learn how to be an  effective mediator and negotiator. Use your listening skills to hear and understand both sides of any argument – encourage and facilitate people to talk to each other. Try not to be judgemental but instead ease the way for conflict resolution Provide constructive feedback †¢Constructive feedback refers to providing a person with useful information about their approach, skills and/or actions in order to encourage professional and personal development. It includes both what a person is doing well and what they need to improve. you can avoid misunderstandings and check to make sure that your communication is clear. Constructive feedback motivates many who use it to change their behavior, study new things, or adopt new attitudes. The summary is also an opportunity to show your support for the other person and an effective way to conclude even a negative feedback situation on a positive note. If communicating with a person from another culture, become familiar with the needs, cultural expectations and language level of the person. have self-awareness of their own cultural practice, including prejudice, stereotyping and bias understand various cultural factors contributing to cultural differences be sensitive and appreciate a migrant’s migration experience have a good knowledge of, and skills in, communication be able to work with interpreters be willing to accept and appreciate other cultures. Communication channel Channels vary in their information richness. Information-rich channels convey more nonverbal information. As you may be able to guess from our earlier discussion of verbal and written communications, verbal communications are richer than written ones. Research shows that effective managers tend to use more information-rich communication channels than less effective managers. [1]The figure below illustrates the information richness of different information channels. Like face-to-face and telephone  conversation, videoconferencing has high information richness because Receivers and Senders can see or hear beyond just the words—they can see the Sender’s body language or hear the tone of their voice. Handheld devices, blogs, and written letters and memos offer medium-rich channels because they convey words and pictures/photos. Formal written documents, such as legal documents, and spreadsheets, such as the division’s budget, convey the least richness because the format is often rigid and standardized. As a result, nuance is lost. In business, the decision to communicate verbally or in written form can be powerful. In addition, a smart manager is aware of the nonverbal messages conveyed by either type of communication—as noted earlier, only 7% of a verbal communication comes from the words themselves. When determining whether to communicate verbally or in writing, ask yourself:Do I want to convey facts or feelings? Verbal communications are a better way to convey feelings. Written communications do a better job of conveying facts. A breakdown in the communication channel leads to an inefficient flow of information. Employees are unaware of what the company expects of them. They are uninformed of what is going on in the company. This will cause them to become doubtful of motives and any changes in the company. Also without effective communication, employees become department minded rather than company minded, and this affects their decision-making and productivity in the workplace. Eventually, this harms the overall organizational objectives as well. Hence, in order for an organization to be run effectively, a good manager should be able to communicate to his/her employees what is expected of them, make sure they are fully aware of company policies and any upcoming changes. Therefore, an effective communication channel should be implemented by managers to optimize worker productivity to ensure the smooth running of the organization. The key to effective communication is to match the communication channel with  the goal of the communication. [3] For example, written media may be a better choice when the Sender wants a record of the content, has less urgency for a response, is physically separated from the Receiver, doesn’t require a lot of feedback from the Receiver, or the Message is complicated and may take some time to understand. Oral communication, however, makes more sense when the Sender is conveying a sensitive or emotional Message, needs feedback immediately, and does not need a permanent record of the conversation. Use the guide provided for deciding when to use written versus verbal communication.

Shutting Down Napster is Not The Solution essays

Shutting Down Napster is Not The Solution essays Shutting Down Napster is Not the Solution Almost everyone has heard of Napster and its long debated issues of file swapping and sharing. Considering Napsters short-lived existence of about a year and a half, they have certainly opened many peoples eyes. Some say the file swapping that Napster allows everyone to do is illegal; others says its just another thing to do on the internet. Napster has done much good for the internet, adding one more good thing that the internet can do for us. Napster has raised several intense controversial issues in the music industry of copyright infringement laws. Although shutting down Napster is not the solution; some agreement between the plaintiffs and Napster should come about. Napster is a medium for trading and/or swapping of music files over the internet. Napster has about 20 million users worldwide (Grimaldi Online). This phenomenon called Napster has taking the entire internet by storm. Just think all Napster is, is a program designed by a nineteen-year-old kid, a college dropout. Who would have thought that it would cause so much excitement in the music industry (Online)? Napster has allowed millions of people to be able to share their music over the internet. In these millions of people trading and swapping music, there have been claims of illegal acts being committed by the Napster users. The creator of Napster was summoned to court, on copyright infringement violations. Lars Ulrich, drummer for Metallic, brought on this lawsuit; Lars was very upset to find out the people were trading their music with out them, Metallica, getting paid. This upset Lars and sent him on a rally to get Napster shutdown. With all this commotion Napsters creator and designer was dragged into court to face copyright infringement lawsuits. In Napsters defense, they claim that they are not committing any illegal acts, just by letting its members sh...

Free Essays on Hard Rock and Casino

In his journal article, â€Å"Between a Hard Rock and Postmodernism: Opening the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino,† Kurt Borchard uses his experiences from one night in Las Vegas in conjunction with research he has done to make comments on society. One of the ideas that Borchard comments on is the commodification of the postmodern era. The concept that ‘real’ media is becoming unreal is also discussed in his ethnography. Borchard also talks about the ephemeral nature of the postmodern world. Acting as a participant observer, Kurt Borchard conducts his ethnography in an attempt to show how a portion of society is able to show the trends of a complete society. One characteristic of society that Borchard comments on is the unreal reality of the media. He tells of his wait outside of the Hotel to be let into the concert that marks its grand opening. From the long line of people, James, a man who had come not dressed for the weather but to fit the current trends, is picked to enter the concert. Borchard later finds out that MTV is taping the concert and only wants a specific type of people to act as concertgoers. He discusses the fact that people are basing their lives on the ‘real’ images that they see in the media, images that have no basis in reality. This hyperstimulation is a characteristic of the postmodern society, â€Å"a double counterreflection in which life simulates the simulated concerns of the media.† (6) Borchard’s comments on the fact that â€Å"the mediation of an event through television often comes to be confused with the actual event itself.† (11) People are no longer able to eas ily distinguish the difference between reality and media’s dictate of reality. Borchard, in his ethnography conducted at the grand opening of the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, makes connections between the characteristics of that event and the characteristics of society as a whole. He comments on the massive amounts of commod... Free Essays on Hard Rock and Casino Free Essays on Hard Rock and Casino In his journal article, â€Å"Between a Hard Rock and Postmodernism: Opening the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino,† Kurt Borchard uses his experiences from one night in Las Vegas in conjunction with research he has done to make comments on society. One of the ideas that Borchard comments on is the commodification of the postmodern era. The concept that ‘real’ media is becoming unreal is also discussed in his ethnography. Borchard also talks about the ephemeral nature of the postmodern world. Acting as a participant observer, Kurt Borchard conducts his ethnography in an attempt to show how a portion of society is able to show the trends of a complete society. One characteristic of society that Borchard comments on is the unreal reality of the media. He tells of his wait outside of the Hotel to be let into the concert that marks its grand opening. From the long line of people, James, a man who had come not dressed for the weather but to fit the current trends, is picked to enter the concert. Borchard later finds out that MTV is taping the concert and only wants a specific type of people to act as concertgoers. He discusses the fact that people are basing their lives on the ‘real’ images that they see in the media, images that have no basis in reality. This hyperstimulation is a characteristic of the postmodern society, â€Å"a double counterreflection in which life simulates the simulated concerns of the media.† (6) Borchard’s comments on the fact that â€Å"the mediation of an event through television often comes to be confused with the actual event itself.† (11) People are no longer able to eas ily distinguish the difference between reality and media’s dictate of reality. Borchard, in his ethnography conducted at the grand opening of the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, makes connections between the characteristics of that event and the characteristics of society as a whole. He comments on the massive amounts of commod...

Brain Computer Interface

Modifying the human body or enhancing our cognitive abilities using technology has been a long-time dream for many people. An increasing amount of research tries to link the human brain with machines allowing humans to control their environment through their thoughts. Research on BCIs began in the 1970s, but it wasnt until the mid-1990s that the first working experimental implants in humans appeared. Following years of animal experimentation, early working implants in humans now exist, designed to restore damaged hearing, sight and movement. The common thread throughout the research is the remarkable cortical plasticity of the brain, which often adapts to BCIs, treating prostheses controlled by implants as natural limbs. With recent advances in technology and knowledge, pioneering researchers could now conceivably attempt to produce BCIs that augment human functions rather than simply restoring them, previously only the realm of science fiction. 2. Brain Machine Interface (Brain Computer Interface): In this definition, the word â€Å"brain† means the brain or nervous system of an organic life form rather than the mind. Computer† means any processing or computational device, from simple circuits to silicon chips (including hypothetical future technologies such as quantum computing). A Brain Machine Interface (BMI), sometimes called a Direct Neural Interface or a Brain Computer Interface, is a direct communication pathway between a human or animal brain (or brain cell culture) and an external device. In one-way BCIs, computers either accept commands from the brain or send signals to it (for example, to restore vision) but not both. Two-way BCIs would allow brains and external devices to exchange information in both directions but have yet to be successfully implanted in animals or human. Brain-computer interface (BCI) is collaboration between a brain and a device that enables signals from the brain to direct some external activity, such as control of a cursor or a prosthetic limb. The interface enables a direct communications pathway between the brain and the object to be controlled. In the case of cursor control, for example, the signal is transmitted directly from the brain to the mechanism directing the cursor, rather than taking the normal route through the bodys neuromuscular system from the brain to the finger on a mouse. By reading signals from an array of neurons and using computer chips and programs to translate the signals into action, BCI can enable a person suffering from paralysis to write a book or control a motorized wheelchair or prosthetic limb through thought alone. Current brain-interface devices require deliberate conscious thought; some future applications, such as prosthetic control, are likely to work effortlessly. One of the biggest challenges in developing BCI technology has been the development of electrode devices and/or surgical methods that are minimally invasive. In the traditional BCI model, the brain accepts an implanted mechanical device and controls the device as a natural part of its representation of the body. Much current research is focused on the potential on non-invasive BCI. At the European Research and Innovation Exhibition in Paris in June 2006, American scientist Peter Brunner composed a message simply by concentrating on a display. Brunner wore a close-fitting (but completely external) cap fitted with a number of electrodes as shown in fig. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity from Brunners brain was picked up by the caps electrodes and the information used, along with software, to identify specific letters or characters for the message. The BCI Brunner demonstrated is based on a method called the Wadsworth system. Like other EEG-based BCI technologies, the Wadsworth system uses adaptive algorithms and Pattern-matching techniques to facilitate communication. Both user and software are expected to adapt and learn, making the process more efficient with practice. During the presentation, a message was displayed from an American neurobiologist who uses the system to continue working, despite suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrigs disease). He was able to send the following e-mail message: I am a neuroscientist who (sic) couldnt work without BCI. I am writing this with my EEG courtesy of the Wadsworth Center Brain-Computer Interface Research Program. EEG Pattern Recognition This project aims to improve performance of NASA missions by developing brain-computer interface (BCI) technologies for augmented human-system interaction. BCI technologies will add completely new modes of interaction, which operate in parallel with keyboards, speech, or other manual controls, thereby increasing the bandwidth of human-system interaction. The research will extend recent feasibility demonstrations of electromyographic (EMG) methods for neurocontrol to the domain of electroencephalographic (EEG) methods of neurocontrol. These methods will bypass muscle activity and draw control signals directly from the human brain. BCI technologies will provide powerful and intuitive modes of interaction with 2-D and 3-D data, particularly for visualization and searching in complex data structures, such as geographical maps, satellite images, and terrain databases. . Model train control via brain interface machine: Hitachi has successfully tested a brain-machine interface that allows users to turn power switches on and off with their mind. Relying on optical topography, a neuroimaging technique that uses near-infrared light to map blood concentration in the brain, the system can recognize the changes in brain blood flow associated with mental activity and translate those changes into voltage signals for controlling external devices. In the experiments, test subjects were able to activate the power switch of a model train by performing mental arithmetic and reciting items from memory. The prototype brain-machine interface allows only simple control of switches, but with a better understanding of the subtle variations in blood concentrations associated with various brain activities, the signals can be refined and used to control more complex mechanical operations. In the long term, brain-machine interface technology may help paralyzed patients become independent by empowering them to carry out actions with their minds. In the short term, Hitachi sees potential applications for this brain-machine interface in the field of cognitive rehabilitation, where it can be used as an entertaining tool for demonstrating a patient’s progress. NOTE: The earliest interfaces developed in this breakthrough field of research require scientists to insert electrodes into the skull in order to physically tap directly into the brain, and researchers are currently trying to develop technologies that will enable them to access neurological activity through minimally invasive techniques. It is hoped that some day brain machine interfaces will be able to read neural signals non-invasively, from outside the skull, and that devices will be operated involuntarily, without deliberate conscious thought. Thus, for example, fighter pilots wearing specialized helmets may be able to operate some controls automatically, just by thinking. 4. Neuroprosthetics: Neuroprosthetics (also called Neural Prosthetics) is a discipline related to neuroscience and biomedical engineering concerned with developing neural prostheses, artificial devices to replace or improve the function of an impaired nervous system. The neuroprosthetic seeing the most widespread use is the cochlear implant, with approximately 100,000 in use worldwide as of 2006. There are several types of neuroprosthetic as follows: I. Sensory Prosthetics: i. Visual prosthetics: One of the prominent goals in neuroprosthetics is a visual supplement, noting roughly 95% of all people considered blind suffer significant impairment but have some capability (for example, seeing some sort of blur) only about 5% of blind people are totally blind. By the 1940s, researchers had established the concept of artificial electrical stimulation of the visual cortex, and in the late 1960s, British scientist Giles Brindley produced breakthrough findings with a system for placing electrodes on the brains surface. When specific areas of the brain were stimulated in blind volunteers, all reported seeing phosphenes that corresponded to where they would have appeared in space. However, experiments were discontinued because of the uncomfortably high currents required for stimulation on the surface of the brain. Encouraged by this work, the National Institutes of Health undertook a project to develop and deploy an interface based on ultra fine wire (25 to 50 micrometers) densely populated with electrode sites that could be implanted deep into the visual cortex, thus requiring less current than Brindleys original design. This work led to new electrode technology—finer than the width of human hair—that could be safely implanted in animals to electrically stimulate, and passively record, electrical activity in the brain. The efforts produced significant advances in neurophysiology, with publication of hundreds of papers in which researchers attempted to develop an electronic interface to the brain. ii. Auditory prosthetics (cochlear implant): A cochlear implant (or bionic ear) is a surgically implanted device that can help provide a sense of sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing. Unlike hearing aids, the cochlear implant does not amplify sound, but works by directly stimulating any functioning auditory nerves inside the cochlea with electrical impulses. External components of the cochlear implant include a microphone, speech processor and transmitter. iii. Prosthetics for pain relief (Spinal Cord Stimulator): The Spinal Cord Stimulator or (Dorsal Column Stimulator) is used to treat chronic neurological pain. It is implanted near the dorsal surface of the spinal cord and an electric impulse generated by the device provides a tingling sensation that alters the perception of pain by the patient. A pulse generator or RF receiver is implanted in the abdomen or buttocks. A wire harness connects the lead to the pulse generator. II. Motor prosthetics: . Bladder control implants (Sacral anterior root stimulator): Where a spinal cord lesion leads to paraplegia, patients have difficulty emptying their bladders and this can cause infection. From 1969 onwards Brindley developed the sacral anterior root stimulator, with successful human trials from the early 1980s onwards. This device is implanted over the sacral anterior root ganglia of the spin al cord; controlled by an external transmitter, it delivers intermittent stimulation which improves bladder emptying. It also assists in defecation and enables male patients to have a sustained full erection. The related procedure of sacral nerve stimulation is for the control of incontinence in able-bodied patients. ii. Sensory/Motor prosthetics: In 2002 an implant was interfaced directly into the median nerve fibres of the scientist Kevin Warwick. The electrode array inserted contained 100 electrodes, of which 25 could be accessed at any one time. The signals produced were detailed enough that a robot arm developed by Warwicks colleague, Peter Kyberd, was able to mimic the actions of Warwicks own arm and provide a form of touch feedback via the implant. Fig: Electrode array Fig: Robot arm iii. Cognitive prosthetics: Sensory and motor prostheses deliver input to and output from the nervous system respectively. Theodore Berger at the University of Southern California defines a third class of prostheses aimed at restoring cognitive function by replacing circuits within the brain damaged by stroke, trauma or disease. Work has begun on a proof-of-concept device a hippocampal prosthesis which can mimic the function of a region of the hippocampus a part of the brain responsible for the formation of memories. . BMI versus Neuroprosthetics: Neuroprosthetics is an area of neuroscience concerned with neural prostheses — using artificial devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems or sensory organs. The most widely used neuroprosthetic device is the cochlear implant, which was implanted in approximately 100,000 people worldwide as of 2006. [2] There are also several neuroprosthetic devices that aim to restore vision, in cluding retinal implants, although this article only discusses implants directly into the brain. The differences between BCIs and neuroprosthetics are mostly in the ways the terms are used: neuroprosthetics typically connect the nervous system, to a device, whereas the term â€Å"BCIs† usually connects the brain (or nervous system) with a computer system. Practical neuroprosthetics can be linked to any part of the nervous system, for example peripheral nerves, while the term BCI usually designates a narrower class of systems which interface with the central nervous system. The terms are sometimes used interchangeably and for good reason. Neuroprosthetics and BCI seek to achieve the same aims, such as restoring sight, hearing, movement, ability to communicate, and even cognitive function. Both use similar experimental methods and surgical techniques. 6. Future Trends and Scopes: Recent advances in cortically controlled brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) have demonstrated that goal-directed movement of external devices is possible in real-time using multi-electrode recordings from cortex. A number of challenges are currently being confronted to further advance BMI research to the next level. These include choosing the optimal decoding algorithm for the type of control to be performed, localizing the optimal cortical site for reliable control, and focusing on the most suitable electrophysiological signal for practical use in a BMI. We present results that attempt to address these challenges based on multi-electrode recording from multiple motor cortical areas in behaving monkeys. . Conclusion: Although brain–machine interfaces are often talked about in relation to disabled people, we can expect they will also be used by the non-disabled as a means to control their environment especially if the devices are non-invasive and no implants are needed. To date there has not been much public discussion of the implications of brain machine interfaces, the amount of public RD funding they receive, and control, distribution and access to these devices.

Health and safety at work Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Health and safety at work - Case Study Example Some of the employments by nature are hazardous and both the employer and the employee should be aware of the dangers involved in such employments. Definitely there are inherent risks of the employment and they vary in degrees depending on the kind of work, material used, mode of work and ultimate work achievement. If we go through some of the cases over the years, it is easy to find how difficult it is to avoid danger in certain jobs. Cases like Thomas v Quartermaine (1887), Smith v Baker & Sohs (1891), Paris v Stepney Borough Council (1951), General Cleaning Contractors Ltd. V. Christmas (1953), Ellis v. Ocean S.S. Co. Ltd (1958) show us the varied dangers that are inherent in different employments. But according to the modern law the employer is responsible for a duty of care towards his employees and the weight squarely rests in him. "Under the general law of tort, a duty of care arises when two persons are so closely and directly related that the activities of them may involve appreciable risk of injury to the other: Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932]" Munkman (1975, p.82). The Health and Safety Act is a landmark in the history of labour and employment, because it provides maximum safety and care to the workers and this is one act where the employer's responsibility is of major gravity in looking after the health and safety of his employees. "The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (1974) is the most important statute for industry and commerce ever to have been passed through Parliament. Unlike the Industrial Relations Act, this one is here to stay. It affects companies, firms and individuals, employers, from Boardroom to shop floor; manufacturers, designers, importers, suppliersoccupiers, builders, erectors, installers," Mitchell (1976, p.xv). The employer, under the legal compulsion, must make all the attempts and take reasonable care not to expose his employees to any kind of avoidable and unnecessary risk. This responsibility is a personal responsibility and cannot be transferred to othersi. In Peter's case ABC cannot be held responsible to a very large extent, because they have provided all kinds of protective necessary clothing and mask. Safeguarding the health and safety of the employees is the duty and responsibility of the employer and ABC has done so. So, if the position of ABC is assessed from that angle, they cannot be held responsible for Peter's accident. All the injuries that occur during the work are not due to employer fault. Some of them could be because of the carelessness and easygoing habits of the employees like Peter. Still there is a possibility of a court ruling that it is vicarious responsibility of the employer because the employer is responsible for providing a safe workplace for his employee to work. It was not safe enough for Peter, because the chemical was insufficiently diluted by another employee causing grievous damage to Peter. ABC will have to answer for the insufficient dilution of the chemical by another employee. There is no doubt that Peter was at mistake because he did not wear the mask that has been provided for his safety by the ABC. Unfortunately for him, he thought, as his manager did, that the risk involved was very small. The risk involved w

The Economic Environment of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The Economic Environment of Business - Essay Example Other market drivers for these milk products are the increased variety of products including flavoured milk, and also the increased advertising efforts by companies. Suppliers and processors of milk products have adopted measures that aid them to act on interest of consumers. However the market for milk products faced difficulties in the year 2001 to 2002 due to very low farm gate prices and the foot and mouth diseases that affected UK herds, UK milk quotas and the low farm gates has led to the prices being lower than the cost of production placing the farmers under great pressure and also extend on their limits. 2 Some of the major companies in the UK involved in the production of milk and milk products include; Robert Wiseman Dairies, Unilever Best foods UK Ltd, The Yeo Valley Organic Company Ltd, The Kerry gold Company, Kraft Foods UK Ltd, New Zealand Milk Product Ltd, Dairy Crest Group and the Muller Dairy company. 3 Milk and milk products producing firms assume an oligopoly market structure where there are restrictions or barriers to entry, these barriers to entry are associated with health issues and also the prevention of unhealthy competition, market prices are causing these firms to shut down and also the farmers are under pressure in the production of milk to these prices. Market structure that exists: The market structure that exists in this industry is an oligopoly structure, an oligopoly market structure the market is usually dominated by a few firms, this type of market structure falls between a perfect competition and a pure monopoly. This type of market there are times when there is high competition while at other times the firms in an oligopoly may collude by fixing prices and dominate the market.4 The firms in an oligopoly market are faced with a kinked demand curve and this is for the simple reason that if a firm raises the price of the product it is not followed by others. On the other hand if it reduces its prices he is followed by the others, this is the reason why the demand curve at high prices of the product is quite elastic and at lower prices the demand curve is quite inelastic. 5 This is diagrammatically illustrated below: Determination of price and quantity The average revenue curve represent the demand curve which in this case is kinked, if a firm in this industry raises its price it is not followed by others, if it reduces its price it will be followed by others, therefore the price and quantity in this industry is determined by the price of others, one firm will not raise its prices without considering the decisions to be made by other firms.6 However sometimes the firms may collude and dominate the market, therefore the price in this kind of market is determined by market forces and in this case they become price takers and sometimes the price is determined by the firms and this case they become the price makers. Barriers to entry Barriers of entry into the milk producing industry is necessary in that it helps in the prevention of

Journal entry #8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Journal entry #8 - Essay Example tween the target language and the learners first language and the other sequenced according to increasing linguistic complexity of target language items† (1984, p. 691). A discussion on the syllabus design based on disparities between L1 and L2 structures were subsequently presented where the author identified that the most difficult phase was learning crucial elements in the target language that were absolutely absent in the student’s native language. Therefore, various guidelines and contributions were presented for syllabus design and proposed development on the complexity of the second language was appropriately delved into. Accordingly, the author noted that â€Å"recent findings from interlanguage research suggest several ways in which attention to certain aspects of traditional approaches to syllabus design-specifically, L1 transfer and L2 complexity-can be used in selecting, sequencing, and grading items for the syllabus† (Pica, 1984, p. 700). The article is most useful for teachers in the development and design of effective syllabus considering disparities and complexities in interlanguage instructions and learning. Through the guidelines provided in the discourse for syllabus design from the noted cross-linguistic research, educators are illumined on instructional approaches and methods that would facilitate teaching a second language more

Commentary on Accounting Ratios Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Commentary on Accounting Ratios - Research Paper Example This means newer businesses will generally have lower ROCE as compared to older businesses due to the depreciated amount of its assets. Additionally, the number of years that both Dairy Crest and its close competitor have been in business is unclear. The revenue of Dairy Crest is up by almost 20% in 2008, resulting in Operating Profit Margin of 6%. This result is on par with its competitor. However, the improvement may have been attributed by the twofold increase in Dairy Crest's other income, of which the breakdown has not been disclosed. Given the equal result, it can be said that the competitor may be new in the market since its ROCE is way lower than that of Dairy Crest. In fact, the company's Gross Margin Profit is down from 4.6% in 2007 to only 3.9% in 2008, whereas its competitor's is 25.7%. Looking at Dairy Crest's consolidated income statement, its operating cost is up by almost 21% while its revenue increased only by about 20%. Also, there may be some differences in the pricing strategy adopted by the two companies, which explains the big gap in the margin. The company's Asset Turnover Ratio is slightly better at 1.8 times in 2008, while its competitor is at 1.9 times. The higher revenue in 2008 means Dairy Crest is utilising its assets more. Assuming its competitor is new in the business, this result shows Dairy Crest is not performing as well as its competitor. It appears that Dairy Crest has better control of its stocks with a drop in its Stock Turnover of 38.6 days in 2008 against 43.1 days in 2007. As food stocks are perishable items, it is advisable not to hold them for too long. Dairy Crest's move to bring its stock holding period down by 10% is wise. While its competitor holds stocks 46 days in 2008, it is unclear if this is due to uncertainty in suppliers, as the high levels seem unnecessary based on industry. The Current Ratio of Dairy Crest in 2008 is 1.4, an improvement from 1.0 in 2007. This shows the company's financial position is healthier. However, its competitor's Current Ratio of 0.8 in 2008 seems risky, as

The basic guidelines that are specially relevant for aggressive equity Essay

The basic guidelines that are specially relevant for aggressive equity investors and conservative equity investors for investment decision - Essay Example In the need to understand these investment plans, this paper is aimed at evaluating the basic guidelines that are relevant for aggressive equity investors and conservative equity investors for the purpose of decision making. To begin with, aggressive equality investors actively play the game of equality in a vigorous way. Most of the time is spent in managing their portfolio than their consecutive counterparts. They are subjected to high risks; the calculations are in albeit manner aimed at earning big return rates (Chandra, 2009). For the aggressive equality investors, the following general guidelines are relevant in their investment plans for appropriate decision making. The first guideline is to focus on investments that one understands to play their own game. According to Prasanna Chandra (2009, p. 670), â€Å"an investor should always know about the specific company they are investing in, more than the current market does in order to successfully manage their investments.† Therefore, an investor must clearly make a decision on what to focus on. Therefore, decision making is the main key to successful investments. The choices of making decisions are diverse. They include deciding to concentrate on growth, value, multinational companies, small companies, public sector companies, high grade bonds, or low grade bonds. In choosing any of these strategies an investor should be mindful of the basic rules. These rules include being thorough, tough minded, being flexible in knowing the deal about any company one is buying into, and buying when the company is not understood by the existing market is a fundamental idea to keep in mind (Chandra, 2009) . As argued by Candara, one should play the game that one is best in, advocating that an investor should do things as an analyst who is best in doing something. For instance, if an investor can foretell the most important development in the

Doing gender as opposed to being a gender Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Doing gender as opposed to being a gender - Essay Example In his definition of gender, he brings it out as â€Å"interactional portrayals of what individuals would like to convey about sexual natures, via the use of conservative gestures† (West & Zimmerman, 1987, p. 22). This depicts the pursuit of gender as unreasonable. It means that individuals behave according to what they want understood on their sexual types. According to sociology, both gender role and gender display pay attention to the behavioral elements of being either man or woman as opposed to the biological variance between the two. According to West and Zimmerman, the idea of gender as a role makes it unclear concerning the work that is required in producing gender in daily activities, while the idea of display demotes it to the edge of interaction. They argue that â€Å"Participants in interaction organize their various and manifold activities to express or reflect on gender, and are disposed to perceive the behavior of others in a similar light† (West & Zimmerman, 1987, p. 75). This means that gender is about controlling one’s actions according to the behavioral guidelines for one’s selected sex type and seeing others in the same perspective. This may not be applicable to individuals who are intersexual, having a biological makeup that is ambiguous. Instead, such persons could be assigned sex types according to the way they effectively discharge their gender-specific roles. Transgender could also be taken to belong to their chosen sex type without the essential biological standards as long as they follow the guidelines of the performance of gender. In the West, the cultural view on gender sees both men and women as naturally and indisputably defined types of having psychological and behavioral susceptibility that can be foretold from their reproductive functions. This can be termed as gender since one functions according to his sex. In contrast, gender can be defined as the act of controlling

The basic guidelines that are specially relevant for aggressive equity Essay

The basic guidelines that are specially relevant for aggressive equity investors and conservative equity investors for investment decision - Essay Example In the need to understand these investment plans, this paper is aimed at evaluating the basic guidelines that are relevant for aggressive equity investors and conservative equity investors for the purpose of decision making. To begin with, aggressive equality investors actively play the game of equality in a vigorous way. Most of the time is spent in managing their portfolio than their consecutive counterparts. They are subjected to high risks; the calculations are in albeit manner aimed at earning big return rates (Chandra, 2009). For the aggressive equality investors, the following general guidelines are relevant in their investment plans for appropriate decision making. The first guideline is to focus on investments that one understands to play their own game. According to Prasanna Chandra (2009, p. 670), â€Å"an investor should always know about the specific company they are investing in, more than the current market does in order to successfully manage their investments.† Therefore, an investor must clearly make a decision on what to focus on. Therefore, decision making is the main key to successful investments. The choices of making decisions are diverse. They include deciding to concentrate on growth, value, multinational companies, small companies, public sector companies, high grade bonds, or low grade bonds. In choosing any of these strategies an investor should be mindful of the basic rules. These rules include being thorough, tough minded, being flexible in knowing the deal about any company one is buying into, and buying when the company is not understood by the existing market is a fundamental idea to keep in mind (Chandra, 2009) . As argued by Candara, one should play the game that one is best in, advocating that an investor should do things as an analyst who is best in doing something. For instance, if an investor can foretell the most important development in the

Education Is the Key to Changing Life Styles Essay Example for Free

Education Is the Key to Changing Life Styles Essay Narration essay by Marie Price 3 February 2009 for Engliish 1AMarie Price06 February 2009 I was once a young mother in an abusive marriage, uneducated, sacred, and wondering Is this life has in store me? I learned the hard way that no matter what mistakes I make in my life, with support of family and friends, I was able to choose a better life style through higher education and dedication. At the age of sixteen I got married and had a child. I heard the saying over, and again Just babies having babies. You could not convince me of that back then. As I look back now it was not one of my better choices. I had married a man who was a lot older than me, so therefore I just knew I was all grown up. My mother was not happy to say the least and a shouting match lasted for a few days. I told her if she did not sign the papers I would run away, do it anyway and she would never see me again. So against her better judgment she signed the papers. The first couple of years were good, but then it got abusive verbally as well as physical. Physical abuse is obvious black eyes, and bruises hidden behind sun glasses, and makeup. When there is verbal abuse you are told nobody will ever want you, and that you are to dumb to ever do any thing on your own, or you will never amount to anything. The funny thing about that is after a while for some reason you begin to believe it. After ten years of this, I finally divorced. I was scared and thought I was not going to be able to make it on my own. With a young daughter to support, I took my first step in many to come in my lifes journey, working two jobs to keep a roof over our heads, and it was not easy to make ends meet. I never went to high school; so I believed it was my destiny to struggle for the rest of my life. As a single young parent trying to be the best mother I could be, always at work I missed a lot of time with my daughter, time I wish now I had to do over again. It is 1998 I decided to take my GED test telling myself You will not be to pass this test you never went to school. Well I gathered all my will and took the test anyway; I remember waiting for t he results it was sheer touchier. Then came one of the best days of my life I passed the test. That was the first step in many to happiness that I am still working on to this day. In 1999 while at work at the warehouse I was employed at I met a man named Carlos, who to this day is a big part of my life. He is an educated man who is very well spoken, with lots of great advice. He and I became friends, and talked a lot about peoples choices in life. Carlos is a very wise man with a heart of gold. Trough our many talks I learned a person could do what ever they first, set there minds to and second, have the drive to want to better themselves. He seen something in me that I did not see in myself, the ability to go further in life, I ended up leaving that job for employment in Orange County as a credit processor. Thinking that was the job I would retire from. It did not work out that way; you hear the story over and over on the news, the company goes out of business and the employees are left out in the cold looking for work that is not there. This was at the end of 2007 like so many others could not find work. Bills going unpaid I lost my car first then my house shortly after, and became homeless, so for the first time since I moved out of my moms house so many years ago I felt that I had no where to turn and my ex was correct about not being able to make it on my own, with the feeling of complete despair I phoned my mom telling her my dilemma just wanting some one to talk to, I felt so hopeless, and alone not knowing what to do. Well my mom and brother talked, and then asked me if I wanted I could stay with them until I got back on my feet. I started some classes via mail and very well, one more step toward higher education. So I announced to my family I am going to go to college full time. It is now fall semester 2008 at Chaffey College; I have to my first semester was a challenge and the first couple of weeks I found myself calling my thirty two year old daughter Amy, a couple of times saying I do not think this was such a great idea, I dont know what made me think I could do this. Amy said to meMom dont give up I am so proud of you, and I know you can do this. With a lot of time spent at the writing center as well as the success centers I was able to shock myself once again. I received two (As) and one (B) last semester. Not bad for someone who never went to high school? I still have my struggles, this semester it is math but I am putting in the extra effort coming to campus on Fridays so I can spend all the time I need in the PS 12 math labs, because failing is not an option I have come too far, and I refuse to give up. I believe that without my familys support this wouldnt be possible to achieve my dream of making something of myself. I will be starting a new tradition in my family. I am proud to say I will be the first college graduate in my family. I have two granddaughters Anisa who is sixteen, and Angel who is thirteen. I constantly tell them how important their education is. I am adamant about the fact they will go to college as well, expressing to them how they need to be independent young women and seek higher education. I let them know what a struggle it was for me as a young mother, and how they deserve more in life. Could there be a better life for someone who quits school too young and becomes pregnant? With confidence in ones self and the ability to take it one step at a time all things are possible. When all seems lost friends and family will see in you the things we seem to over look in ourselves. It is not easy to return to school after being out for over twenty years, but I am here to say that no matter what mistakes we make in our lives, through hard work and dedication to higher education, all things are possible.

External Environment: PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC)

External Environment: PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) Globalisation refers to the growing economic integration of the world, as trade, investment and money increasingly cross international borders (which may or may not have political or cultural implications) (Schifferes, 2007). Over the past years, there has been a great increase in globalisation. The aim of this study is to analyse the international business environment of an organisation and the impact of globalisation on business organisations. The organisation chosen for this study is PwC. PricewaterhouseCoopers (trading as PwC) is a multinational professional services firm headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the worlds largest professional services firm and the largest of the Big Four accountancy firms measured by 2012 revenues (Wikipedia, 2012). The Big Four firms are PwC, Deloitte, Ernst Young and KPMG. 1 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS The business environment can be divided mainly into two groups: internal and external. The external environment can be either micro or macro. There are several tools that can be used to analyse these environments. Internal Environment: Consists of the strengths, weaknesses and core competencies of an organisation. It can be analysed using SWOT analysis, Value Chain analysis and Three Circles analysis. SWOT analysis is the main tool used in analysing the internal environment. It is an acronym for Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. Value Chain analysis attempts to understand how a business creates customer value by examining the contributions of different activities within the business to that value. Three Circles analysis involves examining customers needs, company offerings, and competitors offerings in order to clearly articulate what the companys competitive advantage is and how it differs from those of its competitors. External Environment: It refers to the business environment that an organisation has little or no control over but directly affects its operations. The following tools can be used to analyse the external environment: PEST Analysis. This tool used in analysing the forces affecting the macro environment of an organisation. It is an acronym for the political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal forces. Porters Five Forces Analysis. It is used to analyse the attractiveness of an industry by considering five forces within the market. Stakeholder Mapping. It is used to identify stakeholders and their level of power and interest in an organisation. This enables the company relate with each stakeholder. 1.1 ANALYSIS OF THE MICRO-ENVIRONMENT (PwC) Threat of new entrants: To succeed in the professional services industry, some requirements include: Huge capital investment Years of experience Brand loyalty The industry is already dominated by strong firms with these qualities doing well both locally and internationally; new entrants are not a threat. Bargaining power of suppliers is high. They are big, rich and their alumni are  everywhere, throughout institutes, regulatory bodies, government, their clients boards and even within almost every other accountancy firm (Prizeman, 2011). Bargaining power of buyers is low. To obtain the best in professional services, there are very few options to choose from. Threat of substitute products No substitute; professional services (especially auditing) are required by law. Except when smaller firms offer the same services at cheaper prices, which is not a major threat. Rivalry The industry is highly competitive especially among the Big Four accountancy firms. 1.2 ANALYSIS OF THE MACRO-ENVIRONMENT The PEST analysis of PWC is given below: Political There are several laws that govern the firms activities. PwC offers services such as tax advisory and assurance services which are a very sensitive part of business. They should be treated with utmost care else face severe penalties. For example, they were recently fined  £1.4 million for failures concerning reports on client-money accounts at JPMorgan Chase Co. (JPM)s London securities unit (Moshinsky, 2012). Also, these regulations are changed or updated from time to time; therefore, PwC has to ensure they are always in compliance with the law. Furthermore, regulations on payment of taxes, financial statements and auditing make PwC continuously relevant in the market. Economic The recession in UK and other countries has affected the sales, profit and growth of several companies, including PwC. Therefore, some companies hire other firms which provide the same services as PwC but charge less, so as to reduce costs. This has also affected PwCs profits. Socio-Cultural Due to the highly professional services the organisation offers, it requires several highly skilled employees. Finding such individuals and retaining them is not an easy task, especially when other companies keep trying to win them over; offering them better employment packages. Technological This could act as a threat or opportunity to the organisation. New inventions, changes and advancement in technology provide an avenue for PwC to improve its operations and stay ahead of the competition. Computers, software, phones, internet, intranet etc are important resources to the firm. But keeping up with the rapid changes in technology is almost impossible. 1.3 IMPACTS OF THE INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT Political Regulations governing PwCs activities differ from country to country and these are updated from time to time. These include employment laws, tax policies and competition laws. As an international organisation, this affects the firms operations because PwC has to ensure that all its operations including strategies and values are in line with the laws in the several countries it operates in. For examples, in most countries, the law requires that accounting firms to be locally owned and independent. This has affected how PwC is structured. Economic The global recession cuts across the several countries PwC operates in; this has generally affected the firms operations and flow of income. The industry, professional services, is a highly competitive one with other members of the Big Four (top four countries offering professional services) striving to be the market leader and several other firms seeking growth in the same industry. Also, the rise in unemployment as a result of the global recession has made it difficult to obtain employees with the necessary skills and experience required in the firm. Lastly, the increase in free trade among nations of the world makes it possible for PwC to continue to expand and increase in several foreign countries. Socio-Cultural There are several ethics that govern how people and organisations operate. These ethics differ from country to country. PwC believes in excellence and integrity. This could be difficult to uphold because in certain countries. For example, bribery has become generally accepted in some African countries even though they know it is wrong. PwC employees could get involved in this, which would affect their ability to judge fairly, be excellent and uphold integrity. Technological Some countries are not as technologically advanced as others. This can slow down PwCs operations in some of these countries. For example, internet connection is not as stable and fast in Nigeria as it is in the UK. Fluctuations and temporary breakdown of internet service can have adverse effects on the companys activities. A team in Nigeria might not be able to meet up the deadline of making a certain presentation, if there is no internet service needed to carry out research and development on that topic. 2 IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION ON ORGANISATIONS 2.1 EXTENT OF GLOBALISATION The Industrial Revolution led to the globalisation of today. It started in UK and spread to other parts of the world. Changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation and technology had great effects on the world economy. Globalisation began to grow as a result of the increase in world trade in the 1940s. When it became evident that the Great Depression in the early 1930s was due to the restrictions and barriers to free trade in the world, countries began to lift and/or reduce restrictions to trade. This led to the development of several trade agreements among countries. Furthermore, the continuous advancement in technology has also led to the constant increase in globalisation. PwC is one of the many firms that has benefitted from the increase in globalisation. It has a network of firms that spread across 771 cities in 158 countries. Free trade between UK and these other countries has made it possible for PwC to move its resources (especially capital and manpower) to these countries, blend in with diverse cultures and set up a network of firms that has made PwC become the global market leader in professional services. 2.2 EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION The benefits and opportunities that globalisation brings to organisations especially PwC are: Larger markets: Globalisation has made it possible for PwC to expand not only within UK but to other countries as well, enabling the organisation to emerge as the worlds market leader in its industry. Foreign investments: Globalisation provides an avenue for PwC to increase its investments by investing internationally, which also leads to increase in returns. Increase in profits: Access to larger markets and increase in investments has lead and will continue to lead to increase in returns, revenue and profits for PwC. Movement of labour: Globalisation allows for free movement of human resources among countries. This provides an opportunity for PwC to hire professionals from one country to work in another country. Thereby enabling firms to have access to skilled workers regardless of where they are located. Exchange in culture: The world is full of diverse cultures. An international firm like PwC has access to inputs from people of different cultures, beliefs, customs and backgrounds. This enables the firm to learn more and be versatile. Competitive advantage: Operating in the international market gives PwC an advantage over other similar companies operating locally. Larger markets, increased investment, increase Employment opportunities: Globalisation enables PwC to provide employment opportunities in several countries especially the underdeveloped and developing countries it operates in. This is a great way to be socially responsible and impact the communities. Globalisation also has a number of challenges that affect organisations. Some have been explained in 1.2 and 1.3, others include: Less developed countries: Operating in countries that are underdeveloped or developing can be difficult sometimes. This is because they might not always have the resources available to make the business as productive as it should be. Exposure to the international market: Globalisation means the firm would be exposed not only to local forces but international ones as well. The firm has to deal with competitors, markets, trends, political, economical, socio-cultural, environmental and legal issues at the international level. Cultural differences: Operating internationally exposes the firm to diverse cultures. To be effective in these countries, PwC would have to adapt to their cultures, rather than impose its own, yet without losing its unique touch. This is quite tasking. Criticisms: Critics have pointed out negative effects of globalisation; PwC has to avoid being part of the problem. Criticisms include: loss of culture to stronger ones, exploitation of less developed countries and increase in unemployment in developed countries. 2.3 STRUCTURES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS Organisational structure consists of activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision, which are directed towards the achievement of organisational aims (Pugh, 1990). It could be functional, divisional or matrix depending on the type that best suits a companys operations. An organisation that operates internationally must carefully select a structure that would accommodate its operations both at home and abroad. Structures of some international organisations include: Walmart Stores: Walmart is a multinational retailer corporation headquartered in the US. It has a divisional structure with three main divisions; Walmart Stores (U.S.) Sams Club (U.S.) and International stores (Hitt, 2008). This structure helps Walmart to focus better on each division. Narrowing the focus really allows the company to perform more effectively because they are allowed to pinpoint specific areas needing change and adjust appropriately (George and Jones, 2005). Starbucks: It is a coffee company headquartered in the US. It has a matrix structure combining divisional and functional structures. Divisions are based on the regions the company operates in; China and Asia Pacific, Americas and EMEA (Europe, U.K., Middle East, Russia and Africa) (Starbucks, 2011). The functions are designed to consolidate functional activities into teams that have a shared vision and goals to support the business (Shultz, 2008). An advantage of having this kind of organisational structure is maximized communication channels (George and Jones, 2005). Unilever: It is a British-Dutch multinational consumer goods company. It has a matrix structure, divided based on product segments (2), functions and the regions it operates in. Unilever developed and implemented this organisational structure for their company to improve communication and to take advantage of resources that are available to them (Hitt, 2008). PwC: PwC runs as a network of firms rather than a multinational company due to laws in different countries requiring accounting firms are to be locally owned and independent. Each firm runs its own structure but all report to PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited (PwCIL) that coordinates the activities of all partner firms. 2.4 INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS OF PWC Networking: All PwC firms operate as a separate legal entity; thereby allowing them to operate independently. Although not to be referred to as a multinational company, its operations are not different from multinationals except that, PwC firms have autonomy to operate and do not send money to the Global Headquarters. Support from other members: All firms in the network count on each other when they lack necessary information or expertise for a project. Internet: Free access to information to all members via PwCs global portal network; employees in different countries can relate with and gain from each other. Same methodology: PwC firms all over the globe have the same approach to work from pre-project planning to post-project assessment. Charges: Whenever someone from a firm helps another firm in a different country, the person is per hour spent. Quality Assurance: To ensure that member firms are committed to quality and strictly abide by standards /policies, PwCIL quality assurance team constantly conducts a PwC-wide quality control check. CONCLUSION Globalisation is here to stay. As the world continues to encourage free trade, organisations will continue to expand internationally. Therefore, in order to thrive in the international market, organisations have to make the most of the international business environment. Environmental analysis enables the organisation to understand its strengths and weaknesses, as well as opportunities and threats to the company. This enables the firm to understand the impact the international environment has on its operations and adjust accordingly. Criticisms to globalisation should not prevent free trade, but educate organisations on the better ways to operate internationally. Important to note is the organisational structures of a number of multinationals: matrix and divisional structures. TASK 2 CLASS PRESENTATION INTRODUCTION Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a process with the aim to embrace responsibility for the companys actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere who may also be considered as stakeholders (Wood, 1991). IMPORTANCE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY According to Von Tunzelmann (1996), corporate social responsibility is important in business because: It is a way of motivating and building pride in employees and managers. It contributes to the development of a healthier community (e.g. through a better qualified workforce or a reduction in the level of crime), thus creating a more favourable business environment. It assists in identifying new markets and anticipating societal and consumer preferences. It allows differentiation from competitors. It leads to an enhanced reputation helping the company to be well-liked in the community. It encourages a climate of trust and goodwill, facilitative of business. It helps in overcoming problems associated with the implementation of operational plans. It helps in maintaining public confidence in the legitimacy of business operations. It minimises the prospects of future regulation. MORAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES Ethics refer to the moral principles that guide or influence peoples actions and behaviours. The most important resources in any organisation are the people in it; therefore, it is necessary pay attention to the principles that guide peoples conducts. Organisations that operate internationally are faced with several moral and ethical issues, described by Mehalu (2011): Utilitarianism in this view you approach an ethical problem using the question, Which course of action will do the most good and the least harm? This view is based on the ideas of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill (18th and 19th Century). Actions are considered good or bad depending on the extent to which they make the greatest number of people happy. So suffering of a few is okay as long as it maximises the overall good. Rights view in this view you ask the question, Which alternative best serves others rights? This view is based on the ideas of Thomas Jeffersons Declaration of Independence (USA) and John Locke and Immanuel Kant. Actions here are judged according to whether peoples rights have been served and may be seen in terms of keeping within the Law. (E.g. shareholders rights are written in Law). Theory of justice view in this view you ask the question, What plan can I live with which is consistent with the basic values and commitments of the community in which I live? This view is based on the ideas of John Rawls and Alasdair MacIntyre (late 20th century). Actions are judged according to the enforcement of widely-held views of justice and virtue. (E.g. protecting the needy; looking after the community). Integrative social contracts theory in this view you would ask the question, What course of action is possible in the world as it is now? This view is based on the ideas of Machiavelli in which actions are judged according to pragmatic consideration and practicalities. Decisions are made according to the current situation and with reference to what ought to be done. So you would be both pragmatic and idealistic as the need arose. CORPORATE STRATEGY AND ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITIES Although corporate social responsibility is important and beneficial to organisations, sometimes there are conflicts between corporate strategy and ethic and social responsibilities: Profit Sharing: The aim of most organisations is to maximise profit; shareholders want maximum returns on their investment. But focusing on moral and ethical activities can reduce the extent to which profits can be maximised. This can create a conflict when deciding how to draw a line between profit sharing and contributing towards CSR. Corruption: Sometimes, managers or employees are faced with unethical issues that could help in achieving corporate strategy. For example, falsifying or hiding sensitive parts of a financial report to make company records look good. Or giving bribes to get vital information about competitors. Being morally or ethical may seem to have negative impact on a firm in the short-run, but in the long-run, it is still the best option. Competition: PwC is the market leader in the professional services industry; the company strives to maintain that position for as long as forever. The industry has a very high level of rivalry; therefore, in order to maintain that position, PwC has to constantly be ahead of the competition. In implementing this strategy, PwC has to ensure that ethical, moral and legal steps are taken. This is not always easy because it yields slower results. For example, PwC could decide to directly or indirectly bad-mouth other firms to their clients so as to win them over. Or release private information regarding its clients to prospective ones in order to win them over. Recruitment: Finding a balance between the organisations commitment to improving the society by reducing unemployment and achieving corporate strategy by employing high quality staff is not always easy. PwCs has a rigorous recruitment process which does not leave room for private interest as everything is done right. But it also seeks to improve the society by hiring and training. LEGISLATION AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is guided by a number of laws, regulations, standards and principles: The Global Compact: The Ten Principles: CSR in PwC is based on a set of principles listed by USB (2012): Human Rights Principle 1: Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights within their sphere of influence; and Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses. Labour Standards Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour; Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labour; and Principle 6: eliminate discrimination in respect of employment and occupation. Environment Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges; Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies Anti-Corruption Principle 10: Businesses should work against all forms of corruption, including extortion and bribery. CSR in PwC is also governed by a number of national and international norms and standards. Four pre-dominant ones explained by Stanislavska et al (2010) are: SA 8000 SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY Social Responsibility: It is a certification norm which sets requirements in the area of child labour, forced labour, BOZP, discrimination, work hours, right to congregation and evaluation. It was created by Social Accountability International (SAI), a non beneficial non-governmental organisation in the US. The SA8000 specifies the requirements for corporate social responsibility in 9 areas: Child Labour, Forced and Compulsory Labour, Health and Safety, Freedom of Association Right to Collective Bargaining, Discrimination, Disciplinary Practices, Working Hours, Remuneration and Management Systems (SA 8000, 2012). AA 1000 ASSURANCE STANDARD: AccountAbilitys AA1000 series are principles based standards to help organisations become more accountable, responsible and sustainable. They address issues affecting governance, business models and organisational strategy, as well as providing operational guidance on sustainability assurance and stakeholder engagement (AA1000, 2008). It also includes: constructing socially responsible strategies; methods of communication with involved parties; ethical audit; choice of indicators and CSR reporting etc. ISO 26000: International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) is an independent organisation concerned with the creation of international standards for industry. ISO standards are voluntary mechanisms managed by market and as such they can be realized by private economic organisations. ISO 26000 aims to assist organisations and their network in addressing their social responsibilities and providing practical guidance related to SR, identifying and engaging with stakeholders and enhancing credibility of reports and claims made about SR. Furthermore, the standard aims to: emphasize performance results and improvements; increase customer satisfaction and confidence; promote common terminology in the SR field; be consistent, and not in conflict, with existing documents; treaties, conventions and other ISO standards (Castka and Balzarova, 2008). Some PwC firms have been accredited with a number of other ISOs including ISO 14001 environmental management systems and ISO 27001 information security management system. OECD GUIDELINES FOR MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISES: The Guidelines are recommendations addressed by governments to multinational enterprises. They provide voluntary principles and standards for responsible business conduct consistent with applicable laws. The Guidelines aim to ensure that the operations of these enterprises are in harmony with government policies, to strengthen the basis of mutual confidence between enterprises and the societies in which they operate, to help improve the foreign investment climate and to enhance the contribution to sustainable development made by multinational enterprises (OECD, 2011). Code of Conduct (PwC, 2011): PwC also has a code of conduct based on its core values (excellence, teamwork and leadership) that govern corporate social responsibilities in all its firms around the world. It covers topics such as behaving professionally, respecting others and corporate citizenship. It also includes a summary of ethical questions that should guide employees: Is it against PwC or professional standards? Does it feel right? Is it legal? Will it reflect negatively on you or PwC? Who else could be affected by this (others in PwC, clients, you, etc.)? Would you be embarrassed if others knew you took this course of action? Is there an alternative action that does not pose an ethical conflict? How would it look in the newspapers? What would a reasonable person think? Can you sleep at night? CONCLUSION No firm operating either locally or internationally should ignore the importance of corporate social responsibility. Although sometimes it may seem to be in conflict with corporate strategy, in the long run, it is of great benefit to any firm. Proper attention should be paid to the laws and regulations that govern CSR. There are many of them; as much as possible, organisations should seek to abide by all of them. Also, companies can develop their own code of conduct based on these laws and its mission, vision and values. This would make it much easier to abide by.